An Old Fisherman's Wife

Breton Girl Looking After Plants in the Hothouse

Portrait of Cecilie Trier, née Melchior

A Limier Briquet Hound

Anna Leafing Through a Portfolio of Prints

Amelia Eliza van Leeuwen (1862-1923). Echtgenote van Christiaan Bernard Tilanus, chirurg en orthopedist te Amsterdam

Dorothea and Francesca

Une Martyre (Saint Thechla)

By a Clear Fountain

Charlotte Perkins Stetson Gilman

Le frère et la soeur, Penmarc'h

At the River's Bend (On the River II)

Julia Ward Howe

Drikkende ung pige

Portret van Emile Auguste Carolus-Duran

Self-Portrait as a Chimera

Self-Portrait in a Spanish Costume

The Gathering at the Orchid Pavilion (front); Geese among Reeds (back)

Maternal Caress

Sappho

Harriet Beecher Stowe

Old Arrow Maker

Clasped Hands of Robert and Elizabeth Barrett Browning

World’s Fairs were international gatherings that showcased art and technology. At the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition held in Chicago, women from several countries exhibited work in the Palace of Fine Arts and the “Women’s Pavilion.” Elite, white “Lady Managers” organized the Pavilion, while excluding women of color from leadership roles. The Columbian Exposition celebrated the 400th anniversary of Columbus’s genocidal landing in the Americas. Its overall vision equated whiteness and masculinity with “civilization.” Works by women artists from Japan, Cuba, and Mexico provided a limited but significant counterpoint. Here, we feature a selection of works by women who exhibited at the 1893 World’s Fair, most of them from Europe and the United States. The works from Curationist’s partner collections aren’t necessarily the objects from the Fair, but they do provide a unique survey of women artists active at the turn of the century. Note, particularly, the many portraits of famous feminists.

Women Artists at the World's Fair

Divination Mirror

Bronze mirror

Mirror with "TLV" Pattern

Mirror with Jaguar or Coyote Mosaic

Mirror Back with Great Goddess

Mirror (Shinjūkyō) Based on Han Dynasty Prototype with Cosmological Design

Created by Reina Gattuso. 
Many ancient peoples viewed mirrors as magical. They believed mirrors were portals to the spiritual realm or tools with which to divine the future. 
There is a scientific explanation for how mirrors reflect light, of course. But this knowledge doesn’t stop their luminous surfaces from seeming magical. Across time and place, human beings have viewed reflective surfaces as portals to the divine or to the future. 

The first mirrors were likely the reflective surfaces of still water. Human-made mirrors entered the archaeological record around 8,000 years ago in Anatolia.1 Most societies associated mirrors with beauty and personal grooming. But some also attached a deeper ritual significance to them. 
 
This collection features ritually significant mirrors from ancient cultures around the world. Ancient Chavín-Cupisnique people likely used mirrors for divination, and buried mirrors with their dead.2 Aztec peoples, meanwhile, included small mirrors as part of royal regalia,3 while ancient Etruscans ritually smashed mirrors they included in tombs4. Ancient cultures in China and Japan decorated mirrors with symbolism that situated their users at the symbolic center of the cosmos.5 
 

Citations: 

1 Castro, Joseph. “Who Invented the Mirror?” Livescience, 28 March 2013, https://www.livescience.com/34466-who-invented-mirror.html. Accessed 25 May 2022. 
2 “Mirror.” Dallas Museum of Art, https://collections.dma.org/artwork/3288058. Accessed 25 May 2022. 
3 “Mirror with Jaguar or Coyote Mosaic.” Art Institute Chicago, https://www.artic.edu/artworks/132675/mirror-with-jaguar-or-coyote-mosaic. Accessed 25 May 2022. See also “Mirror Back with Great Goddess.” The Cleveland Museum of Art, https://www.clevelandart.org/art/1989.65. Accessed 25 May 2022. 
 
4 De Grummond, Nancy T. “On Mutilated Mirrors.” Votives, Places and Rituals in Etruscan Religion. Brill, 1 Jan. 2008. https://brill.com/previewpdf/book/edcoll/9789047442622/Bej.9789004170452.i-292_012.xml. Accessed 25 May 2022. 
 
5 “Mirror with “TLV” Pattern.” Art Institute Chicago, https://www.artic.edu/artworks/10522/mirror-with-tlv-pattern. Accessed 25 May 2022. See also “Mirror (Shinjūkyō) Based on Han Dynasty Prototype with Cosmological Design.” The Met, https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/44835. Accessed 25 May 2022.

Magic Mirrors

Carved white jade leaf cluster ornament

Snuff Bottle in the Shape of an Eggplant

Two Monkeys on Two Peaches

Lotus-Leaf Dish

Carved white jade leaf for bowl and stand

Carved white jade flower form bowl and cover with stand

Bottle in the shape of a gourd

Vase

Gourd-Shaped Snuff Bottle with a Butterfly, Trailing Tendrils, and Fruit Branches

Created by Reina Gattuso. 
Ancient Chinese people believed jade could confer immortality. They obtained nephrite, one of the two minerals geologists call jade, from Turkestan and Siberia. In modern times, they also obtained jadeite from southeast Asia. Chinese scholars associated jade with courtly virtues including integrity, persistence, and moral purity.1 

In the Qing Dynasty, when most of the jade objects in this collection were made, artists carved particularly elaborate jade forms. They employed tools and abrasives to impart ornate designs on the extremely hard stone.2 Depictions of fruit, flowers, and vegetables were popular. 

Plant varieties hold spiritual meanings within Daoism and Buddhism. The lotus symbolizes spiritual growth from the mud of worldliness to the blossom of enlightenment.3 The peach symbolizes immortality.4 The gourd represents a wish for numerous offspring.5
 
Jade ranges in color from brilliant apple green to subtle grayish blue to pure white. Artists took advantage of this natural tonal variation to create startlingly lifelike vegetation. Their seemingly miraculous skill transformed an unyielding material into juicy lettuce leaves, plump peaches, and translucent lotus blossoms.

 
CITATIONS 


1 Lyons, Elizabeth. “Chinese Jades.” Penn Museum, 1978, https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/chinese-jades/. Accessed 16 April 2022. 
 
2 “Chinese Jades.” 
 
3 “Lotus.” Philadelphia Museum of Art, https://www.philamuseum.org/collection/object/318939. Accessed 26 April 2022. 

4 Sun, Jason. “Chinese Hardstone Carvings.” The Met, June 2016, https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/hard/hd_hard.htm. Accessed 16 April 2022. 

5 Howard, Samantha, “Myth and Magic in the East Asian Ivory and Jade Collections.” Text modified by Glenn Roadley. The Potteries Museum and Art Gallery, 2 May 2021, https://www.stokemuseums.org.uk/pmag/myth-and-magic-in-the-east-asian-ivory-and-jade-collections/. Accessed 16 April 2022.

Fruit, Flowers, and Vegetables in Chinese Jade

Loie Fuller

Loie Fuller, from the Actors and Actresses series (N45, Type 1) for Virginia Brights Cigarettes

Miss Loïe Fuller

Loïe Fuller

Created by Noa Rui-Piin Weiss Loie Fuller is a modern dance icon, but relatively few photographs of her remain. Ironically, this follows from her dedication to preserving ownership over her work. Fuller was invested in maintaining control of her artistry by pursuing copyright for her performances. When she did seek out documentation, she preferred posing for staged, portrait-style photographs. Yet the most common representations of her are posters and drawings created by other artists. The proliferation of promotional materials made by venues and dancers imitating her work have created tension in the archive. In the end, we are forced to reckon with Fuller’s oeuvre through the exact thing she strove to avoid: other people’s transcriptions of her vision.

Yamashita Kinsaku II

The First Nakamura Tomijuro as a Woman Dancer

Iwai Hanshirō IV

Kabuki Actor Nakamura Tomijūrō I in a Female Dance Role

Young Man Playing the Flute Beside a Fence

A Young Woman Returning a Ball to a Young Man

Young Man and Woman Talking through a Bamboo Blind

Courtesan with a Young Man (Wakashu) beside a Screen

The Actor Arashi Wakano as a wakashu (youth) in a kappa (raincoat)

Samurai and Wakashu

Young Man (Wakashu) with a Miniature Flower Cart

The Actor Sanogawa Ichimatsu II in the Costume of a Fashionable Young Man (Wakashu)

Young Men of Fashion - A Set of Three (Wakashu sanpukutsui)

The Actor Sanagawa Ichimatsu 1st as a Wakashu (Fashionable Youth) in the Drama "Momo–Chidori Shiraume"

The Young Monkey Showman (Wakashu sarumawashi)

The Actors Nakamura Kashiwagi as a Wakashu (second from right), and Three Unidentified Actors as Yakko

In the Style of a Young Man (Wakashu fu), Left Sheet of Triptych (Sanpukutsui hidari)

The Actor Nakamura Riko as an Oiran Tying Her Obi

The Third Azuma Tozo as a Woman in a Black Kimono

Kabuki Actor Segawa Kikunojō III in a Female Role (Shizuka Gozen)

The Third Segawa Kikunojo as a Woman in a Crouching Position

The Actor Nakamura Rikō, as a Courtesan with a Sword

Segawa Kikunojo III as a Woman Standing under a Maple Tree in the Autumn

The First Nakamura Tomijuro as an Oiran Standing in a Room

The Third Segawa Kikunojo as a Woman Standing in a Room Having a Wave-pattern Dado

The Second Yamashita Kinsaku (1733–1790)

The Third Segawa Kikunojo as an Oiran

The Actor Iwai Hanshiro IV as a Woman in a Black Kimono

The Actors IV Iwai Hanshiro and I Bando Mitsugoro as Women Pilgrime in a shosa (Acting and Dancing) Performance

The Fourth Iwai Hanshiro as a Courtesan Dressed in a Pink Kimono

The Fourth Iwai Hanshirō as a Woman

The Actor Segawa Kikunojō as a Courtesan of the Ōmiya Brothel

The Actor Segawa Kikunojo Third as an Oiran

The Actor Segawa Kikunojo III as a Woman Standing near a Winding Stream

The Actor Nakayama Tomisaburo I in an Unidentified Role

Actors [Out of Costume] Like Mount Fuji [Without Snow] in Summer, by Ichiba Tsūshō

The Actor Yamashita Mangiku I in an Unidentified Role

The Actor Segawa Yujiro I in an Unidentified Role

The Actors Otani Tomoemon I as Emohei (right), and Sanogawa Ichimatsu II as Sanada Yoichi (left), in the Play Myoto-giku Izu no Kisewata, Performed at the Ichimura Theater in the Eleventh Month, 1770

The Actor Nakamura Tomijuro I as a Female Fox from Mt. Ubagadake in the Play Chigo Torii Tobiiri Kitsune, Performed at the Ichimura Theater in the Eleventh Month, 1777

The Actor Yamashita Kinsaku II as Miyagino Disguised as a Hairdresser in the Play Kosode-gura no Tekubari, Performed at the Morita Theater in the Second Month, 1772 (?)

The Actors Ichimura Uzaemon IX as Hata no Daizen Taketora Disguised as the Yakko Matahei (right), and Iwai Hanshiro IV as Umegae Disguised as the Poem-Diviner Omatsu (left), in the Play Mukashi Otoko Yuki no Hinagata, Performed at the Ichimura Theater in the Eleventh Month, 1781

The Actors Nakamura Shichisaburo III (right), and Ichikawa Junzo I (left), in the Play Nue no Mori Ichiyo no Mato, Performed at the Nakamura Theater in the Eleventh Month, 1770

Act Two: The House of Kakogawa Honzo from the play Chushingura (Treasury of Loyal Retainers)

The Actor Yamashita Kinsaku II as a Thunder Goddess in the Play Onna Narukami, Performed at the Morita Theater in the First Month, 1770

The Actor Segawa Kitsuji III as Murasame in the Play Gohiiki Kanjincho, Performed at the Nakamura Theater in the Eleventh Month, 1773

The Actor Arashi Hinaji I Dancing "Musume Dojo-ji" (The Maiden at Dojo Temple)

The Actor Bando Mitsugoro as a Man in Sumptuous Raiment, Standing in a Field, Mount Fuji in the Background

Kabuki Actor

The Kabuki Role: Wife Omaki

Silhouette Image of Kabuki Actor

Mitate junishi no uchi

The Ninth-Month Kabuki Dance "Kikujido"

Kabuki Actors: Bando Mitsugorō and Iwai Hanshirō

Kabuki Actors Nakamura Gentaro and Ikushima Shingoro

Mirror Images of Kabuki Actors

Three Kabuki Actors Playing Hanetsuki

Kabuki players as the Eight Sennin (Triptych)

The Actor Segawa Kikunojo II Dancing with a Parasol

Fourteen Actors

Kabuki Actor Segawa Kikunojō III in a Woman’s Role

5 Playing Cards with Kabuki Rolls, Poems, Trigrams

Kabuki Actor Segawa Kikunojō III in a Female Role

Kabuki Actors Osagawa Tsuneyo II and Ichikawa Danjūrō V

Kabuki Play Kusazuribiki from the Tales of Soga (Soga 
monogatari)

Kabuki Actor Segawa Kikunojō III in a Mad Female Role

Evening Glow on a Traveling Drama  [Chinese watching a Kabuki play]

Kabuki Actors Arashi Ryūzō II and Segawa Kikunojō III

Kabuki Actor in a Female Role Standing with a Fan

Kabuki Stars Before a Gracious Waterfall (Arigataki megumi no hanagata)

The Thirty-Six Immortals of Poetry as Kabuki Actors

Segawa Senjo in the role of nurse Masaoka

Hofdame Onoe zittend voor kamerscherm

Lezende geliefden

Sawamura Tanosuke

Concubine Mekame in snow with umbrella

Drie kabuki acteurs trekkend aan een rode banier

Hofdame Iwafuji met sandaal in haar hand

Kabuki Actor Onoe Kikugorō III as the Spirit of the Courtesan Yonakishii

Kabuki Actors Ichikawa Yaozō III, Onoe Matsusuke I, and Sawamura Sōjūrō III

The Kabuki Actor Segawa Kikunojō II as a Woman Reading a Letter

The Kabuki Actor Segawa Kikunojo in the Role of a Courtesan Reading a Letter

The Advent of a Demon; Scene from a Performance in an old Kabuki Theatre

Actors as Genroku, Otsuma, and Shokuro, from an untitled series of half-block images of kabuki scenes

Two Dancers Performing a “Shakkyōmono” Kabuki Dance, from Spring Rain Surimono Album (Harusame surimono-jō), vol. 3

Two kabuki actors in the roles of a courtesan on a water buffalo and a traveling priest

Kabuki Scene at Kumagai's Camp, from the play The Chronicle of the Battle of Ichinotani (Ichinotani futaba gunki)

Segawa Kikunojō III as Teruha

Sanjo Kantaro as a Young Woman Standing in a Wisteria Arbor

Actors as Fukashichi and Omiwa from the play "Imoseyama," from an untitled series of half-block images of kabuki scenes

“Act II, Scene 2: Along Train Tracks in America,” from the series The Strange Tale of the Castaways: A Western Kabuki

“Act II, Scene 5: At the Opera in Paris,” from the series The Strange Tale of the Castaways: A Western Kabuki

Actor Nakamura Senya as Tokonatsu in the Kabuki Play, "The Legacy of the Three-Comma Family Crest Revealed" (Mitsutomoe Katoku Binaki)

Kabuki Actors Sawamura Sōjūrō III and Sanogawa Ichimatsu III in "A Courtesan’s Mirror for the Eastern Provinces" (Keisei Azuma kagami)

Actors as Fujisawa Shiro, Asari Yoichi, and Hangaku, from an untitled series of half-block images of kabuki scenes

Iwai Hanshirō IV as a Woman with a Sword

Kabuki Actors Onoe Kikugorō III as Shizuka Gozen and Nakamura Utaemon III as Kitsune Tadanobu, in the play Yoshitsune senbon zakura (The Thousand Cherry Trees of Yoshitsune)

Sanjo Kantaro II in the Role of Urashima Taro

Representations of gender variance, crossdressing, and other non-normative expressions of gender and sexuality in Japanese "images of the floating world" ukiyo-e [浮世絵] woodblock prints and/or paintings of the Edo Period [江戸時代] and early Meiji Period [明治時代].

Gender Variance and Sexualities in Ukiyo-e [浮世絵] and other related artifacts

Markt in Damascus

Bazaar in Damascus

A Bazaar

A Cairo Bazaar

Turkish Carpet Bazaar, Cairo

[Bazaar, Rug Merchants]

Egypt and Nubia, Volume III: Bazaar of the Coppersmiths, Cairo

Egypt and Nubia, Volume III: Bazaar of the Silk Mercers, Cairo

La foire du Caire (The Cairo Fair)

Entrance to Bazaar

Algerian Pirates

Arab Market

The Arab Jeweler

An Arab Horse Merchant

The Old Clothes Dealer, Cairo

La Foire du Caire (The Cairo Fair)

Poultry Market, Tangiers

Market Day Outside the Walls of Tangiers, Morocco

Market in Tangiers [Mercato di Tangeri]

Bazaar in Constantinopel

Bazaar in Smyrna

Kralen en stoffen kraam met verkopers in Cairo

Een bazaar in Gezirah

Arcade met zittende figuren in de parfumsouk van Tunis

Drie mannen zittend langs een weg bij de souk te Fez

Koperslagerwinkel in Cairo

Markt van Assoul in Egypte

Kruidenierswinkel met klanten in Cairo

Winkel met potten en vazen in Cairo

Arcade met liggende figuren in de souk van Tunis

Klanten bij een winkel in de souk van Tunis

Gezicht op de markt van Qasr an Nil in Caïro

Markt met handelaren en bezoekers in Jaffa

Koopman te Sousse, Tunesië

Kooplieden in een bazaar in Constantinopel

Bazaars, also known as souks, are famous markets in many parts of the world. Bazaars are common in a region extended from Morocco, across the Middle East and North Africa to as far as India and China. They have been central to daily life in cities and countryside alike for a long time. Bazaars vary a lot in their architecture, social role, and merchandise. Bazaars in busy city centers were different from those in the desert. But they all attracted diverse crowds from all walks of life, and were characterized by a capturing atmosphere that charmed European travelers, becoming a defining feature of "The Orient". In spite of changing over time, bazaars endure in many cities, still attracting visitors who enjoy the experience of times past.

Depictions of Bazaars

Ten Kings of Hell

Album of Daoist and Buddhist Themes: Kings of Hells: Leaf 27

Album of Daoist and Buddhist Themes: Kings of Hells: Leaf 29

Album of Daoist and Buddhist Themes: Kings of Hells: Leaf 30

Album of Daoist and Buddhist Themes: Kings of Hells: Leaf 34

Album of Daoist and Buddhist Themes: Kings of Hells: Leaf 35

Created by Reina Gattuso.
 
The Chinese Buddhist conception of hell is called diyu. Chinese art depicts the Ten Kings of Hell, bureaucrats who punish transgressors. 
The Chinese Empire’s centralized administrative system informed Chinese cosmologies. For example, Chinese myth depicts ten kings or administrators presiding over diyu, or hell.1 
 
By the 3rd century CE, Buddhism had been adopted into Chinese culture.2 South Asian Buddhists invented the concept of naraka, a place where souls experienced torment. This concept traveled to China around the 8th century CE. Chinese people combined the imported concept of naraka with preexisting beliefs about the afterlife. The result was diyu. By the 7th century CE, Chinese Buddhists had begun writing about diyu as a bureaucratic realm.3
 
In one popular version of the myth, diyu has ten different levels, or courts, with a king presiding over each one. In some accounts, souls considered to have committed evil are sent to the levels of diyu that match their deeds.4 In others, souls progress sequentially through each of the ten courts.5 Each realm features different kinds of torture corresponding to the deeds done in life. For example, in the fifth court, those who were greedy for money are thrown on a mountain of knives.6 
 
This collection features brush paintings of the Kings of Hell from two different albums. Both date to the Song Dynasty. Each king has unique iconography and attributes, such as a karma scale or a wheel of rebirth.7 The kings are portrayed presiding over “defendants.” 
 
Citations
 
1 “Album of Daoist and Buddhist Themes: Kings of Hells: Leaf 27.” The Cleveland Museum of Art, https://www.clevelandart.org/art/2004.1.27. Accessed 21 June 2022.
 
2 Foy, Geoff. “Buddhism in China.” Asia Society, https://asiasociety.org/buddhism-china. Accessed 21 June 2022. 
 
3 Teiser, Stephen F. The Scripture on the Ten Kings. University of Hawai’i Press 1994. https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Scripture_on_the_Ten_Kings_and_the_M/BJVG5mnpnL0C?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0. Accessed 26 July 2023. 
 
4 “Shiwang.” Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiwang. Accessed 21 July 2022.
 
5 “Ten Kings of Hell.” The Metropolitan Museum of Art, https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/44506. Accessed 21 June 2022. 
 
6 Yong, Ced. “What Are China’s Horrific Ten Courts of Hell.” Owlcation, 19 April 2022, https://owlcation.com/humanities/The-Horrific-Chinese-Ten-Courts-of-Hell. Accessed 6 July 2022. 
 
7Im McCormick, Sooa. “Korea in Focus: The Ten Kings of Hell and the Transnational Hellscape.” The Cleveland Museum of Art, https://www.clevelandart.org/research/in-the-library/collection-in-focus/ten-kings-hell-and-transnational-hellscape. Accessed 21 June 2022.

Ten Kings of Hell in Chinese Brush Painting

Convent of St. Saba

Temple Banner with Pilgrimage Sites and Scenes from the Svayambhu-purana (Ancient Text of the Primordial Buddha)

Monastery of Mega Spileon, Greece

Monastery of San Francesco di Civitella in the Sabine Mountains

Fushan Monastery

The Monastery of San Pedro (Our Lady of the Snows)

Looking for a Monastery in the Misty Mountains

Created by Noa Rui-Piin Weiss.
 
Monasteries are meant to be retreats: buildings separated from everyday society for monks, nuns, or other people of faith to commit themselves to a life immersed in religion. Across cultures, monasteries have been built in ways that communicate seclusion, both through their location and their architectural choices. However, the function of monasteries also depends on their accessibility. They are sites of pilgrimage and places for lay people to participate in religious life alongside the cloistered. This collection of works highlights the balance between openness and isolation in representations of monastic life. Some depictions show figures making their way to monasteries, while others focus on the surrounding natural environment that encloses these remote buildings.

Monastic Isolation

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